Answer :
Final answer:
Two ways shallow processing presents itself are through phonetic and orthographic processing, which involve the sound and visual characteristics of words, unlike the deeper semantic processing that focuses on meaning.
Explanation:
Shallow processing in psychology refers to a more superficial consideration of information, which can be demonstrated in two ways: phonetic processing and orthographic processing. These forms of processing correspond to the options (d) Phonetic and orthographic in the multiple-choice question.
Phonetic processing involves encoding information based on sound. One might remember how a word sounds or rhymes without necessarily understanding its meaning. Orthographic processing relates to the visual representation of words—essentially, their spelling or the appearance of the letters. Consider the example of reading a list of words and later trying to recall them; you might remember high-imagery words more easily because you visualize them (a form of orthographic processing), whereas low-imagery words don’t create as strong a mental picture and thus might be harder to remember.
Semantic processing, on the other hand, involves encoding the meaning of information and is associated with deeper cognitive processing. Studies by psychologists like Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving have shown that semantic encoding aids in better long-term recall. This is because semantic encoding requires one to engage with the content more deeply, often making personal connections with the information (the self-reference effect), which strengthens memory.
